Wes Wilson-Thesis

Wes Wilson used his backgrounds in botany and philosophy to develop interesting political posters with organic forms and type that filled the whole composition, reminiscent of victorian design. This type of design began the new era of psychedelic posters.

Corporate Identity

This style of design began around the 50's because after the last World War, corporation began to flourish. With all these business's popping up around the nation and in other nations around the world, leaders of these corporations were looking to achieve some sort of identity. Naturally the design world is what helped create corporate identities by focusing on clarity and interesting visual contrast.  "Good design is good business", this quote is exactly the attitude that leaders of many corporations had about designing a mark, or a logo for their business's. Each designer that is mentioned during this period in corporate design creates a personal imprint that is seen throughout all of their designs. Mainly designers were put up to the task of creating a simple image that would also suggest what the company was about by using common everyday symbols in each design. for example Giovanni Pintori was the graphic designer for the Olivetti corporation. This corporation was looking for a technological type of image so Pintori used a collage of numbers with the corporations name creating a simple yet effective design for Olivetti. 

The Columbia Broadcasting System(CBS) was another corporation that was led by someone that understood the need for design when it came to being successful . William Golden was the art director at CBS and was the creator of the famous CBS eye. This image is still used today by CBS because of its simplicity and effectiveness as a corporations mark. Golden was involved with pushing the concept that artists/designers are responsible for ensuring that a message is clearly communicated to the audience. Later on CBS hired a man by the name of Georg Olden who had the daunting task of having to incorporate simple effective design for television. He understood that the limitations were grand, black and white pictures were all that could be used and the image itself would only be on screen for a few seconds so Olden focused on creating images that the audience could quickly comprehend the image. He made sure to achieve the essence of each program by using simple signs and images that the audience could easily relate to. Olden was unique because he marks the first African American designer that was given a corporate job even though it was during a time when the civil rights movement was not in place. 

Overall corporate identities were created so that when a logo was seen the audience would immediately connect the design with the business itself. Corporate identity was not just using a certain symbol or logo, it was about the entire image of the business. The audience began to identify with color schemes, layouts and specific typefaces that would reming the viewer of a certain business. All of these aspects were put together to create a solid corporate image making their business easily recognizable when looking at advertisements. From packaging to the architecture of corporate buildings this period in design still exist today as new corporations arise and old ones search to renew their image. Designers that contributed to corporate imagery understood that sometimes the logo would have to adapt to whatever the advertisement called for. The American designer Rand created the simple IBM logo by using a slab serif typeface unified by horizontal lines. However when it came to the "Eye, Bee, M" advertisement Rand understood that he had to manipulate the original logo in order for that specific advertisement to be successful. Understanding the audience is the biggest aspect in corporate design.

How risky is it for a corporation to abandon a long existing logo in order to re-identify itself?

Are there any examples of recent, drastic logo changes?

The New York School-After Class

After the presentation on the New York school it became more apparent what the school promoted when it came to design concepts. This whole idea of combining visually innovative shapes with communicative text gave way to interesting editorial layouts. Today in class also cleared up the style of typography that was used during this period. For example the whole concept of typographic expressionism, that involved type that would symbolize the meaning of the actual word. I found it interesting how the designers from this time would use photo negatives as a cheap and efficient way to organize and create interesting layouts.

The New York School

The New York school is the first sign of America having its own original design style. Even though most concepts were borrowed from european designers, American designers added new forms and concepts to their designs. This step towards a original american modern design style came from the unique circumstances of the culture found in America. The country was full of capitalistic values and a diverse ethnic group of civilians. Paul Rand is just one of many influential designers that helped create a image for American modern design. He used freely invented shapes that were both expressive and symbolic, and he used these shape to successfully communicate an idea. He set up the guidelines for this revamped modern style by using unexpected playfulness keeping each design visually dynamic. His contribution towards influencing future designers came from his book entitled "Thought of Design" which gave eighty examples of his work. Rand also set up this concept of engaging the audience by using universal symbols to portray a idea. Visual contrast became a must in design during this period, leading to eye catching designs.

During the mid-20th century a Yale began its graphic design school. Albers and Eisenman were the main players involved with heading up this school. They both held this fascination with type and typography, making it a huge aspect of the schools teachings. The school included a faculty of famous designers and would often have guest speakers that were famous designers include Jan Tschichold. This led to top designers coming from the Graphic Design school at Yale. 

One major aspect of design in America is found in the editorial magazines. During the 50's the three major magazines were Vogue, Fortune, and Harpers Bazaar. This period of editorials gave way for new concepts, including the rise of women designers. Pineles was the first woman to be admitted to the New York directors club. Leo Leonni is a design that was known for his innovative use of photography while working for Fortune. Many designers during the period were influenced by a designer by the name of Brodovitch, including Storch who work for Bazaar magazine. He was known for unifying typography with photographs. Henry Wolf was known for utilizing white space and large photographs. The end of the editorial boom was due to the publics need for more information and less visually appealing magazines because of the war going on in Vietnam. 

After the decline of this market designers had to change their design approach in order to satisfy the publics demand for more text filled magazines. Graphic designers would start to focus on controlled layouts and standard grids. They also turned to formal typography in order to create a design that is easy to read. Bernbach was a major influence on this new approach towards editorial design, and he create visual and verbal syntax. This meant that both words and images would work together in order to convey an idea/concept.

International Typographic style

The international typographic style or better known as Swiss style, is a period that involved viewing design under a new light. Scientific reasoning became a new way to solve design problems and mathematics became the new tool to help organize a layout or used to set up grids. Both of the fields, science and mathematics played the main role in guiding design features of this period. Asymmetrical organization and mathematically constructed grids are not the only aspects of this movement, the international typographic style also gave way for more innovative designs free from commercial advertisements or propaganda. This freedom was due to the fact that Switzerland stayed neutral throughout WWII so designers were able to create without having to abide by any guidelines or strict rules.

Typography was one of the main focuses of the Swiss style. Designers mainly utilized sans-serif fonts in order to achieve a mathematically sound design. The letters themselves were organized flush left and ragged-right. This arrangement provided designers a clean grid set up that also created interesting abstract shapes. Some new sans-serif typefaces were created during the Swiss style like Adrian Frutiger's univers that involved twenty-one different fonts inside the family. Helvetica is another important type to com,e out of this style ans it was created by Edouard Hoffman and Max Miedinger. Even with the high demand for sans-serif fonts German born Henry Zapf is a designer that reinvented the classic serif typeface with his inbtroduction of types like palatino or melior.

During the Swiss style designers were always concerned with getting their message across whatever it may have been. Typography in the international typographic style communicates the message with clarity by incorporating those aspects from mathematics and science. Mathematical spatial division arranges the letter forms in a way that makes it clear for the audience to understand the message. According to Ernest Keller design was all about clear communication and visual order and this was a major characteristic of the Swiss style. Designers involved with the international typographic movement understood and believed the concept that type in itself can fulfill all aspects design.

Why did mathematics and science become so heavily incorporated with design during this time, is there any hint to why designers started to incorporate these fields with graphic design?

After Class-American Kitsch

American Kitsch can be simply explained by the definition of "Kitsch" which in German means in bad taste. This art style can be seen as tacky, and pointless this is why the style is not taught at art schools. Kitsch is highly involved in hollywood throughout the 1940's-60's, illustrations and designs involved exaggerated, organic lines. This style of art is synonymous with comic strip advertisements and the idea of a 50's diner. Along with these organic forms the kitsch style involved exaggerated facial expressions and dramatic poses used in every composition. Most of this style was influenced by the casual revolution which involved James Dean. The casual motif is found in Kitsch particularly in the typography which was mostly hand drawn. 

Besides Norman Rockwell who else was well known during the American Kitsch period?

American Kitsch

American Kitsch can be described as tacky, cheap design. After all kitsch is German for bad in taste, and I would have to agree that the art coming from America during the 40’s through the end of the 60’s was tacky. Some of the influences that led to this art form were from the first youth movement that was happening in the States. James Dean was a huge movie star that brought forth this idea of casual clothes and everything casual. Shirts and jeans replaced leisure suits as the youth of America began to separate from the adults. This art period was all about organic curves and semi-geometric shapes being utilized in all aspects of design including poster designs, Diners, and even the Casino designs in Las Vegas capture the essence of American Kitsch. Most of the poster designs for advertisements and Hollywood would use these exaggerated facial expressions to capture the attention of the public eye. Hollywood had a lot to do with the development of this art style as designers would use Hollywood lighting techniques to help create dramatic lighting in their poster designs. American kitsch was often realistically rendered to add to the exaggerated mood of each composition. However cartoon caricatures were also used in advertisements giving the advertising world of this time the look of a comic book. These advertisements were also incredibly bright in color and often portrayed hand drawn qualities. The typography of this time was also know to be casual and hand drawn, we no longer see this passed obsession of sans-serif that was prevalent during the modern art period. American Kitsch is not a style that is taught in art schools but is often mimicked by graphic designers whenever they want to capture the essence of the 50’s, because after all American Kitsch is aalso n=known as 50’s art.

Why is this art form not talked about in our text books?

Art Deco

Art deco grasps its inspiration from other art period such as art nouveau and the art and crafts movement. Art deco focuses on all aspect of design including jewelry, architecture, furniture, fashion, magazines, books and posters. All of which share the basic style of Art deco. This movement was developed in between the two world wars and incorporates geometric and linear forms. Much like pictorial modernism, art deco involves this concept of simplified forms and the idea that less is more. The artist involved during this time like the French designer Cassandre would distort reality while using space to create an effective simplified composition. The art deco style is also know to represent what was happening during the time period. Depictions of women smoking and war posters are seen because this is what was going on during the time. Typography is a huge part of Art deco as the sans serif font slowly became the font of modernism, art deco designers would create interesting arrangements of type creating a unique composition. Jan Tschichold manipulated weight and placement of type to add to his image. The best way to go about simply defining Art deco is to say it is a form of art that includes a simplistic view on reality. For example in art deco, instead of drawing a human eye designers would replace it with a simple dot. Art deco is modernism and involves the idea of new form, and materials being used.

My only question is why Art Deco stopped being the popular form of art…what events led designers to step away from this form of art?

Pictorial Modernism

Pictorial modernism is very much focused on the advertisement side of design. This art form was discovered and used throughout the early decades of the 20^th century. One of the first groups that began this form of pictorial modernism was the Beggarstaff advertising company founded by James Pryde and William Nicholson. This style of advertising is best described as being simple forms. Plakastil was the first movement of pictorial modernism and is considered to be what started the new art form. The flat colors and simple design is what pictorial modernism was all about. Bernhard was the German designer made famous for his priester advertisement that simply used two matches underneath the bold face type. In Switzerland there was another form called sachplakate which borrowed some ideas from plakastil but also developed its own style know as Basel realism. This form of realism was a new way of advertising that involved a intense style of realism made from lithographic prints. War posters had a lot to do with this era because it fell in between the two world wars. One of the most famous propaganda poster designers was Ludwig Hohlwein. He was Hitlers personal designer, and truly capture the essence of this art form by using this concept of less is more to create simplified compositions.

How come in pictorial modernism we don’t see these geometric shapes that were involved in the influences of modernism such as cubism and futurism…etc.?

Influences of Modern Art

Modern art can be described as just that…modern. It was a style of art that pushed itself away from traditional forms and motifs. In general Modern art can be looked at through the numerous styles that were discovered during the period. These new techniques and styles evolved from the radical social, political, and cultural change that occurred during the first two decades of the twentieth century. Cubism, Futurism, Dada, Surrealism, and Expressionism all are new styles that are discovered and make up this period of art. Cubism steps away from traditional art and pushed for more geometric planes to be used. Pablo Picasso is known as the founder of this style. Picasso had a huge fascination with objects from African tribal art because of this use of geometric forms. Cubism can also be described as being a depiction of an object that is drawn simultaneously from all angles, creating the unique distortion of reality that gave cubism it’s fame. Futurism was meant to capture the mood of speed and noise. The influence for this style came from war, the age of machines, speed, and anything involving modern life. Artist that pursued this style would use typography to help capture emotion, for example they would use italics to emphasize speed and bold face type to symbolize power and violence. Dadaism is another one of these modern art forms that broke through during the early 20^th century. It was a reaction towards what happened in WWI and sought complete freedom from traditional art or any guidelines. Mainly used to protest war, Dadaist would often use collages and photomontages to portray the artist’s ideals. Also Dadaism brought this concept of using type as characters, creatively using letters to tell a visual story. Surrealism developed around the unconscious mind, and dreams. Anything that goes against realism can be seen as surrealism. The last important style to emerge out of this time period is expressionism. Expressionism is meant to capture emotion. This was done by using contrasting colors and using loose, expressive lines to create an image/feeling. Overall this period of art pushed for artist’s to be more creative and to think outside the box.

My one question about this period is whether or not these artists ever got immediate attention, or if the modern art was seen as garbage during the early stages?

After Class-Genesis of the 20th century

After listening to the presentation on the beginning of the 20th century, I was able to comprehend the type of style that acts as a backbone for the movement and every design to come out of the genesis of the 20th century. This period in art is recognized by its unique combination of geometric organization and flowing organic lines. 

One of the main influences of the time was Frank Lloyd Wright. He was an architect/ graphic designer that brought the idea of organic organized form, where negative space was truly utilized in every composition. When Wright would design a building he would design both exterior and interior so that both would flow together. He often looked at parts of a whole and how they all work together to make a finished product. Next came "the Four" from Glasgow school of art. These four Scottish students were influenced Lloyds ideas and they continued to push the style. Their work would often involve strong vertical lines that were combined with delicate organic lines that flowed off. Not everyone was fond of this new style, in fact the Vienna secession was due to the fact that art students from the Kunstlerhaus resigned because of how disgusted they were with these new abstracted ideas. From this secession came Ver Sacrum, which was a magazine that incorporated all new forms of art. It was a forum for new techniques and styles to be shared internationally amongst designers.

After Class-Art Nouveau

Art Nouveau is considered the first international movement of design. It began in France and means new art, and that is exactly why this movement began, because the French believed it was about time for art to transform. This movement involves the collision of many different types of styles, it is a very imaginative type of design as well as very organic. This decorative styling and the push to transform art led to art being made a part of everyday life rather than art being seclusive. Overall this movement is what created the push away from victorian design into modern design. New materials were being used during this period like lithograph print making, which is done by using stone a grease to etch an image that becomes a template for a print that can be reused. Toulouse-Lautrec was a french designer that made posters using the Lithograph print making process. He was inspired by both the asian woodblock prints and impressionism. Outside of france the movement began to grow but each country would create their own version of what Art Nouveau is, yet they all contain some common aspects of design. For example English style art nouveau involved powerful black shapes and abstracted pen lines that utilized negative space. In Belgium and the Netherlands, Henry Van de Velde strayed from painting and began to design furniture and buildings which helped make this period of art truly seen in everyday life. Art nouveau brought back this idea of an artistic license that allowed artists to expand on their creativity, giving birth to new ideas.

Before Class-Chapter 12

Chapter 12 is all about the genesis of the twentieth century. At the turn of the century artist and writers alike began to go against traditional ideas in search of new techniques and new design ideas. Much like art nouveau, the genesis of the 20th century goes against classical motifs and pushes the boundaries of design. One of the more influential artists of the time was Frank Lloyd Wright and his new take on architecture. He pushed away from the organic, curvilinear style of Art Nouveau and  focused his attention on rectilinear design patterns with an emphasis on spatial organization. This type of style influenced a group of people known as "the four" that came out of the Glasgow school of art. These Scottish artist were named Charles Rennie Mackintosh, J. Herbert McNair, and two sisters Magaret and Frances Macdonald. These four designers continued to use geometric shapes in a unique combination with floral patterns that organized the compositions in a unique manner were negative space became one of the main focuses of the design process. The same type of geometric organization and flowing organic designs that "the four" embraced influences most of the designers in the early 20th century. For example an art director by the name of  Talwin Morris made contact with "the four" taking the style of their work and pushing it further into the world of mass communication, thus making the style even more prevalently seen during the time period. 

Most of the artist after this time continued to play around with the unity of geometric organization, and organic lines until a German designer named Peter Behrens played a unique however large role in creating a type of style for the 20th century. Behrens was also known as "the first industrial designer" due to his designs for street lamps and teapots. One of his main objectives as an artist was to reform typography with a huge emphasis on using sans-serif as a way to accomplish clean organization of his layouts. Behrens is known as being the first person to use sans-serif type in a book as running text. This led to sans-serifs being used throughout most of the 20th century. The type allowed for designers to achieve great contrast by using only one type family by changing the weight of the type itself. During this time Behrens becomes involved with other German designers and is involved with this group called Deustche Werkbund, which means German Association of Craftsmen. This association brought the ideas of technology and art together. By doing so the design world which just recently moved away from mechanical design to handcrafted products, reverted to machines once again. However unlike the industrial revolution the artists that used machines in the 20th century, artists like Behrens, combined the quality of handmade crafts with the precision of mechanical devices.

The most interesting aspect of this time period is that it took until the 20th century to utilize the sans-serif type.

I am curious as to what machines were being used to create some of the prints made by Behren and his fellow German designers?

Before Class- Art Nouveau

Art Nouveau is a period in design that brought a new light to graphic design as a whole. Its popularity was profound throughout the late 19th century. The period was mainly created due to the mass trade that was occurring between Europe and Asian cultures such as Japan. This trade between Europe and Japan led to a European fascination with oriental art, and , more specifically an interest in a traditional Japanese art form called ukiyo-e. Japonisme is a term that is used to describe this sudden infatuation with oriental art in the Western culture.

This influence led to the creation of the Art Nouveau period that started in France. The term art nouveau came from the name of a art gallery in Paris calle Salon de I'Art Nouveau. The style of art nouveau is highly decorative and incredibly bold in color and imagery. This is considered a transitional period in art that aided in starting the modern movement. The designs of this period puched away from old ideas but still utilized techniques from the past, not only in graphic design but in all factions of art including architecture and fashion. Art Nouveau, stemming from an oriental influence, borrowed this fascination with nature. Because of this almost all forms of art nouveau contain a very organic and natural feel.

In Paris there was two graphic artists that helped push the transition from Victorian design. There names were Jules Cheret and Eugene Grasset. One of the main reasons why this art form flourished in Paris is because the french government lifted the restrictions on what could be printed, so no longer were there any rules or guidelines to prevent an artists creativity. Cheret broke away from using typographic letter presses and began to use lithographic printmaking method. This method gave the finished product stunning coloration, but it was Cheret's compositions that really pushed away from Victorian design. He got rid of the intricate details used by Victorian artist and simplified his work while enlarging the scale of his images.

After Class- Arts & Crafts Movement

Today in class we listened to a presentation on the arts and crafts movement of the late 19th century to the early 20th century. The presentation was a good overview of the chapter but also included some facts about the movement that were not mentioned in the book. For example we went over Robert Owen, and his role as a philosopher for the movement. Owen promoted the connection between morality and the environment, and was always searching for ways to better the lifestyle of the people that worked in the factory all day. Because of people like Owen and there desire to better society, the middle class began to grow as the living conditions became healthier.

Along with the social reform during this period, art and design also went through changes. William Morris is explained as the leader of the design renaissance for the arts and crafts movement. Him along with other designers, architects, printers brought back this sense of artistry and attention to hand-made details. These people took art away from just the painted and sculpted form and gave notice to all aspects of design as being considered art. For example Morris and his friend Phillip Webb designed Morris' house called the Red House. It was considered more of a poem then a home and gave architecture this new identity.

Morris influenced one of the more important art groups that was formed during the arts and crafts movement. They were called the Century Guild and they were responsible for spreading ideas that were common to Morris'. Arthur H. Mackmurdo is considered the founder of the guild and one of the guild more influential pieces was called the Hobby Horse. The hobby horse was the first magazine of its time that was devoted to the arts, and the arts only. It was because of this magazine that the public in Europe began to view print making and other aspects of design as art forms.

Before Class-Arts & Crafts Movement

The arts in craft movement truly began in the late 19th century with what was described as a book-design renaissance. Despite the efforts of book designers and publishers early on in the century, the art faded from the publics eye until its rebirth. This arts and crafts movement was meant to re-amp the art world and clean up after what the industrial revolution did to the society and the art world. Many figures were involved with the rise of the arts and crafts movement in England, but William Morris was considered to be the leader of the movement. Morris' main gaol was to push for individual creativity and expression. The quoted philosopher of this movement, John Ruskin, states that the movement was meant to bring society and the arts together after the two aspects of life became separated due to the industrial revolution. He also brought fourth even more important improvements for society, like bettering the education system, improving housing conditions, and even the idea of retirement benefits. Much like the first renaissance this movement did more than just revive the art world, the Arts and Crafts movement was involved with improving society as a whole. William Morris influenced the creation of a group of designers called the Century Guild. The guild was created by Arthur H. Mackmurdo, an old architect who was inspired by Morris' ideas. The guild was set up "to render all branches of art the sphere, no longer of the tradesman, but of the artist." In other words they sought out to bring back the artistry that seemed to disappear during the industrial revolution. One interesting work created by Mackmurdo and the members of the guild was called the Hobby Horse , that was meant to declare the philosophy and goals of the Century Guild. The reason why this piece is so important because it brings up this concept of print making being seen as an art instead of a trade. This whole period is all about art and the artist. No longer is the art world contained by the industrial revolutions mass production, artist and designers return to taking great care with there work focusing on the quality of finished products rather than quantity.

My one question about this period in art, is what is an easy way to know if a piece of work is from the Arts and Crafts movement? 

Chapter 9-The Industrial Revolution

The industrial revolution is incredibly interesting in that it was a major transfer from rural areas to more condensed urban setting. This period in time lasted from 1760-1800 and turned the design world upside down. This revolution gave birth to machinery and took away the hassle and tedious process of hand made crafts. This movement is known to be a movement that effected and influenced not just the art but society as well. I would go one step further in saying that this was more of a social movement then anything. With the industry booming after the invention of the steam engine, jobs popped up everywhere and people rushed to where the money was this led to overpopulated urban settings with poor work/living conditions. 

As for the design side of this time, we start to see advertising arising along with the industries. This meant posters were at high demands, and everyone was looking for a way to produce more posters, faster and cheaper. The invention of Gutenburgs printing press led to the creation of other printing machines that rapidly produced finished products. First was Lord Stanhope's design of a light weight all iron press, then came Fredrich Koenig and his steam powered press that pumped out 400 sheets per hour, finally came the Line'O'type that produced 4000 sheets per hour and resembled a typewriter. Along side the mass production of woodblock prints, was the invention of something completely new to the world of design. Photography began during this revolution in 1826 when Niepce took the very firs photo onto light sensitive paper. This movement known as the Industrial revolution is considered a time of scientific reasoning and the search for new ideas, it gave the world of design this identity of advertising and brought forth new inventions like the printing presses and photography. 

After Class-Chapter 8

Today we did a quick review about the renaissance, covering the three renaissance men that we learned about in class and in chapter 7, the designers we talked about were Ratdolt, Manutius, and Tory. All we did to remember these designers was review the major design aspects that each person used, and we clarified some new inventions or techniques that came about during this time. We only spent a few minutes going over the renaissance, cause most of our focus in class was aimed toward chapter 8 and of typographic genius. Mainly this chapter went over the French rococco period of art and the letterforms that were being used during that point in time. Many changes were made to typography including the invention of the first font family and formula for font sizes. These discoveries were made by Fournier le Jeune, and he created font sizes by using the point system where 72 points equals one inch. The most helpful part of class discussion was when we looked at the evolution of the type going from old style to transitional, to modern. We focused on the difference of strokes and how the letter form change due to the preference of the time. For example the modern types were machine made and thats because everyone was fascinated by the rise of industrial power so they had the urge for machine made lettering opposed to hand drawn type. 

Weekly Image

This is an image of the EA sports gaming logo. This, much like my last weekly image, can be related to class because it also is a logogram like the ones created during the rise of civilization. However I am using this image to show how it relates to the renaissance, more importantly how the renaissance helped push the development of new typeface. I was intrigued by the lettering of the E and the A for this logo. The type is highly stylized and is unique in the way that the strokes were created, and this uniqueness reminded me of Geoffroy Tory and his fantasy type. It was the renaissance era that brought forth this new sense of creativity and artistic license. If it was not for the inventiveness of the renaissance than there would never be this endless amount of fonts that are seen in the modern day design world. 

Before Class-Geoffroy Tory & Chapter 8

Geoffroy Tory is the name of graphic artist that lived from 1480-1533. He was not just an artist he was also considered a renaissance man covering and successfully accomplishing almost all factions of life. For example Tory was known to be a professor, scholar, translator, poet, author,publisher printer, bookseller, calligrapher, designer, illustrator, and an engraver. Not only did he accomplish such great feats but he did so during a time when such careers were yet fully developed. Tory can be considered a true renaissance man because he was, as previously listed, a man of many talents but also a man of worldly knowledge. I believe that it was his ability to understand so many different types of languages and styles that allow him to be considered one of the most profound graphic artists of his time and of history. It is also interesting to know that Tory was not a privileged child and that he studied hard and traveled in order to gain his knowledge of the arts and the world. The reason why I found this to be interesting is because usually back then it was hard to become anything/anyone unless you came from a noble background. Tory set out to understand and perfect all spectrums of design, but he also was known for inventing new styles and a new perspective of design. He is known for stepping away from the bold, cluttered style of the Gothic era by adding mathematical organization and spacing to his works. Along with the page layouts Tory also was seen as an inventor of type, mainly known for his unique typeface that involved each letter being represented by a certain tool. Tory was considered the most influential designer of the century opening the door for future designers to build off of his accomplishments.

The focus of chapter 8 is on the increasing inventiveness of typeface after the turn of the eighteenth century. Designers stepped away from the formality of the Roman capitals, and began to invent new typefaces that were put together using mathematics, however the overall lettering would be created for aesthetic appeal. during the Rococo era in the eighteenth century brought fourth a sense of organic lettering. Floral designs and the use of s-curves caused the rococo period to be full of intricate patterns that derived from nature. The most important invention to come out of the rococo period was the set of guidelines and rules created by Fournier le Jeune. What Jeune did was create a book that included a system of design in which measurements, rules, and typeface were all unified for other designers to use as reference. This invention also lead to the beginning of type families, or fonts. This set of guidelines also involved principles involving the use of fonts in relation to the use of decorative typefaces. It is during this time that engravers or print makers start to be seen more as artists because they were no longer confined to using a certain type, they began to invent and create new decorative engravings.

This period in time allowed designers to create their very own type, one man in particular was William Caslon who was an englishman that created his own typeface called Caslon Old Style. This become the main font used by all designers in England at the time. What was unique about his font designs was that they were mainly easy to read but still maintained this sense of artistry that was pleasing to the eye. Next in line to change the world of type was a man who also resided in England, his name was John Baskerville. What Baskerville did was improve the printing press and designed cast and set type. He also borrowed some ideas from the Japanese and he would often finish his work by hand painting flowers and fruits throughout. Truly the most important aspect that came from this time period was the inventiveness and use of different types. Also it is important to note that guidelines were created that helped organize the world of graphic design and type, however it did not limit creativity and the search for new ideas.